Papers › Revising deep learning methods in parking lot occupancy detection

Revising deep learning methods in parking lot occupancy detection

7 Jun 2023arXiv:2306.04288archive 2025-07-28

Anastasia Martynova, Mikhail Kuznetsov, Vadim Porvatov, Vladislav Tishin, Andrey Kuznetsov, Natalia Semenova, Ksenia Kuznetsova

Parking guidance systems have recently become a popular trend as a part of the smart cities' paradigm of development. The crucial part of such systems is the algorithm allowing drivers to search for available parking lots across regions of interest. The classic approach to this task is based on the application of neural network classifiers to camera records. However, existing systems demonstrate a lack of generalization ability and appropriate testing regarding specific visual conditions. In this study, we extensively evaluate state-of-the-art parking lot occupancy detection algorithms, compare their prediction quality with the recently emerged vision transformers, and propose a new pipeline based on EfficientNet architecture. Performed computational experiments have demonstrated the performance increase in the case of our model, which was evaluated on 5 different datasets.

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eighonet/parking-research officialmentioned in papermentioned on GitHubpytorch report

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Tasks

Deep LearningImage ClassificationObject DetectionParking Space Occupancy

Datasets

Introduced by this paper, per the archive.

SPKL

Results from the paper archive 2025-07-28

TaskDatasetModelMetricValueRank at snapshotLeaderboardReport
Parking Space Occupancy ACMPS EfficientNet-P F1-score 0.9982 #1 of 5 Archive leaderboard report
Parking Space Occupancy ACMPS MobileNetV2 F1-score 0.9971 #2 of 5 Archive leaderboard report
Parking Space Occupancy ACMPS CarNet F1-score 0.9877 #3 of 5 Archive leaderboard report
Parking Space Occupancy ACMPS CFEN F1-score 0.9789 #4 of 5 Archive leaderboard report
Parking Space Occupancy ACMPS ResNet50 F1-score 0.9379 #5 of 5 Archive leaderboard report
Parking Space Occupancy Action-Camera Parking MobileNetV2 F1-score 0.9343 #1 of 7 Archive leaderboard report
Parking Space Occupancy Action-Camera Parking VGG-19 F1-score 0.9152 #2 of 7 Archive leaderboard report
Parking Space Occupancy Action-Camera Parking EfficientNet-P F1-score 0.9125 #3 of 7 Archive leaderboard report
Parking Space Occupancy Action-Camera Parking mAlexNet F1-score 0.8577 #4 of 7 Archive leaderboard report
Parking Space Occupancy Action-Camera Parking ResNet50 F1-score 0.8377 #5 of 7 Archive leaderboard report
Parking Space Occupancy Action-Camera Parking CFEN F1-score 0.8302 #6 of 7 Archive leaderboard report
Parking Space Occupancy Action-Camera Parking ViT F1 0.8152 #7 of 7 Archive leaderboard report
Parking Space Occupancy CNRPark+EXT EfficientNet-P F1-score 0.9683 #1 of 7 Archive leaderboard report
Parking Space Occupancy CNRPark+EXT MobileNetV2 F1-score 0.9663 #2 of 7 Archive leaderboard report
Parking Space Occupancy CNRPark+EXT VGG-19 F1-score 0.9629 #3 of 7 Archive leaderboard report
Parking Space Occupancy CNRPark+EXT ResNet50 F1-score 0.938 #4 of 7 Archive leaderboard report
Parking Space Occupancy CNRPark+EXT CarNet F1-score 0.9332 #5 of 7 Archive leaderboard report
Parking Space Occupancy CNRPark+EXT ViT F1-score 0.9176 #6 of 7 Archive leaderboard report
Parking Space Occupancy CNRPark+EXT CFEN F1-score 0.8482 #7 of 7 Archive leaderboard report
Parking Space Occupancy PKLot VGG-19 F1-score 0.9988 #2 of 3 Archive leaderboard report
Parking Space Occupancy PKLot ResNet50 F1-score 0.9926 #3 of 3 Archive leaderboard report
Parking Space Occupancy SPKL EfficientNet-P F1-score 0.7393 #1 of 7 Archive leaderboard report
Parking Space Occupancy SPKL ViT F1-score 0.7335 #2 of 7 Archive leaderboard report
Parking Space Occupancy SPKL CarNet F1-score 0.7131 #3 of 7 Archive leaderboard report
Parking Space Occupancy SPKL MobileNetV2 F1-score 0.6937 #4 of 7 Archive leaderboard report
Parking Space Occupancy SPKL VGG-19 F1-score 0.6801 #5 of 7 Archive leaderboard report
Parking Space Occupancy SPKL ResNet50 F1-score 0.6674 #6 of 7 Archive leaderboard report
Parking Space Occupancy SPKL CFEN F1-score 0.5367 #7 of 7 Archive leaderboard report

Ranks are positions in the archive's leaderboards as they stood at the 2025-07-28 snapshot. Results published since then are not among these rows, so a rank here is not a current standing.

Methods

1x1 ConvolutionAverage PoolingBatch NormalizationConvolutionDense ConnectionsDepthwise ConvolutionDepthwise Separable ConvolutionDropoutInverted Residual BlockPointwise ConvolutionRMSPropReLUSigmoid ActivationSqueeze-and-Excitation Block

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